Media strategies for improving an unfavorable city image

Media strategies for improving an unfavorable city image

Eli Avraham, Department of Communication, University of Haifa, Mount Carmel, 31905, Haifa, Israel Cities Volume 21, Issue 6 , December 2004, Pages 471-479


1. Background

In the past two decades, and in particular in the last decade, there has been a significant increase in the attempts made by place leaders, urban planners and decision-makers around the world to promote a positive and attractive image for their cities. These people believe that their cities’ public images have far-reaching implications for significant decisions made by several target audiences: the residents of other cities (where to emigrate to, visit or work); investors or the management of companies, industrial factories or plants, and entrepreneurs (where to move a factory to, where to establish a business, where to find business opportunities); the city residents themselves (whether to stay or to leave, whether to recommend the city to others, real-estate value, local pride); and national decision-makers (whether to allocate budgets and resources, whether to establish industrial areas). Due to the growing competition between cities and increasing globalization—leading to more emigration, investments and jobs out of town—many cities around the world constantly "re-package" themselves and their resources in an attempt to present an attractive image. This is done in order to successfully compete for international status that could assist in attracting tourists, conferences, sporting events, entrepreneurs, investors, industries, company headquarters and global capital (Ashworth and Voogd, 1990; Avraham, 2002; Avraham, 2003a; Gold and Ward, 1994; Dunn et al., 1995; Kotler et al., 1993; Kotler et al., 1999; Kotler et al., 2002; Bradley et al., 2002; Short and Kim, 1998; Young and Lever, 1997; Paddison, 1993; Morgan and Pritchard, 2002; Gold, 1994 and Nielsen, 2001).
Along with the growing awareness of the importance of a city’s positive image, many place leaders believe that their city’s negative image is an obstacle that prevents it from becoming more attractive and in fact forestalls a brighter future. The frustration of these place leaders is immense, since they believe that the negative image is false, and that the actual situation in their city is much better than public perceptions of it. The object of this article is to present a literature review that summarizes the media strategies that local decision-makers can employ in order to deal with city image-related crises and to reverse a city’s negative image. While many articles have analyzed in depth specific cases in which one or two cities have undergone favorable image transformations (Tilson and Stacks, 1997; Short and Kim, 1998; Dunn et al., 1995; Hooper, 2002; Baral et al., 2004 and Frisby, 2002), virtually no articles summarize the various strategies available to place leaders wishing to change their city’s negative image.
City image-related crises occur all the time. Sometimes the negative image is the result of historical problems (decaying industrial cities, peripherally located cities, little contribution to national economy, unemployment, ongoing crime), and sometimes it follows events such as racial and ethnic clashes, terrorist attacks, assaults on tourists, epidemics or fatal diseases, and natural disasters (earthquakes, hurricanes, landslides, floods). Due to the national and international media tendency to focus on negative news events, cities receive more attention during times of crisis than at other, non-crisis times. One of the results of this extended exposure is a devastating blow to the city’s image in a relatively short period of time. Tourists, visitors and investors refrain from coming back, and the crisis becomes more severe. Whatever the cause of the negative image and exposure of the city may be, it leads to the formation of negative stereotypes associated with the city. Due to the nature of stereotypes and prejudices targeted at any group or place, city stereotypes are very difficult to change. Therefore, the challenge that faces place leaders who wish to change their city’s image is great and seems nearly hopeless. Analysis of several case studies around the world, however, demonstrates that some place leaders have managed to reverse their city’s negative image with the aid of various media techniques and strategies. The present study will attempt to track these strategies, while trying to understand what one can learn from past experience, and in this way suggest methods that place leaders may wish to follow in the future.
2. City marketingAlthough place marketing has been taking place since colonial times, when governments attempted to convince people to move to the newly conquered territories (Gold, 1994), the concept of "place marketing" (which some label as "place promotion" or "city management") became popular in European urban literature only during the 1980s. In the US, the concept was developed much earlier ( Paddison, 1993). "Place marketing" has many different definitions in literature; one that summarizes most of these can be found in Short et al. (2000), where it is declared that "place promotion involves the re-evaluation and re-presentation of place to create and market a new image for localities to enhance their competitive position in attracting or retaining resources" (p 318). This definition emphasizes the re-presentation of place in order to create and market a new image, geared to compete for the retaining and attracting of various resources. European researchers (van den Berg et al., as cited in Paddison, 1993) emphasize in their definitions the promotion of various aspects of comfort and economic development in the marketed area, which satisfy the requirements of residents, investors and visitors, in what has been referred to as "the harmonious city". These researchers, who believe that promoting these aspects helps cities compete with other cities and remain in respectable positions in the urban hierarchy, also emphasize the general aspect of working on the city’s image—while postponing actual work on the city’s physical appearance—as the key to a successful new marketing campaign. In any case, city marketing can be looked upon as a "refreshing" of urban identity or as the creation of new forms of identity ( Dunn et al., 1995).
Studies in the field feed on two theoretical approaches: one linking between urban marketing and political economy, emphasizing the transformation of urban government and the involvement of the business community in the development of a local economy; the other focusing on the success of various marketing strategies (see list in Short and Kim, 1998 and Bradley et al., 2002).
3. City images and stereotypesAll urban marketing attempts to improve cities’ images and public perceptions. Kotler et al. (1993) define the image of a place as "the sum of beliefs, ideals, and impressions people have toward a certain place". They argue that an image represents a simplification of a large number of associations and pieces of information related to a place, and is a cognitive product of the attempt to process large amounts of information.
Many different factors influence a city’s image or perception among those from out-of-town. Among these are: the characteristics of the city’s population, its status or political power, the size of its population, its crime rate, socioeconomic status and employment situation, the number and character of national institutions located within the city, its location and historical background, movies and television series that have been filmed on location in the city, its media coverage, atmosphere, entertainment options, tourist or cultural value, and physical appearance (Avraham, 2002 and Avraham, 2003a).
Many different methods may be used in order to evaluate a city’s image among specific target populations, but the most popular of these are attitude surveys, various questionnaires, focus groups and in-depth interviews (Fenster et al., 1994). Kotler et al. (1993) argue that a city’s image can be positive and attractive, negative, weak (as in the case of peripheral locations that are not well known), mixed (when the image includes both positive and negative elements), or contradictory (when the city has a favorable image among a certain population, and a negative image among another population). In addition, city images can be classified as "rich images" or "poor images": for some cities, we have a "rich image"—that is, we know a lot about them, usually from different sources, and also from personal visits and knowledge; for other cities, we have a "poor image"—we know very little about them, and what we do know usually comes from only one source of information ( Elizur, 1986).
When dealing with images, one can differentiate between two kinds of place images among target populations: "open images" and "closed images". "Open images" are those that enable one to add more characteristics, whereas "closed images" are those to which one is not likely to add new characteristics, or at least not likely to add characteristics that differ from the core image. Such images are also known as "stereotypes": simplified attitudes or beliefs about a place that are not examined thoroughly and are difficult to change (Gold, 1994 and Elizur, 1986). In other words, the moment a stereotype is formed about a certain place, it is very difficult to change it, since much effort is required in order to persuade the target population to be open to a new and different image. This problem can be illustrated through the case of the city of Chicago, which was a center of gang related activity during the 1920s and 1930s. Local authority officials complain that wherever they visit in the world, Chicago is referred to as a center of crime and violence, even though its actual crime rate is one of the lowest among large American cities ( Tal, 1993). Apparently, many remember Chicago as a city of crime; even though its reality has changed, the stereotype persists. In another case, Burgess (1982) notes that local municipal leaders in northern England believe they must still combat stereotypes persisting from the 19th century concerning their way of life.
4. Image management and city marketing strategiesIt seems natural to ask what steps local authorities should take in order to improve their city’s image and to market a more positive image. Due to the limited space available here, it is not possible to describe in detail all the stages of decision-making and implementation of marketing campaigns (for such elaborations, see Kotler et al., 1993; Short et al., 1993 and Morgan and Pritchard, 2001). One should, however, distinguish between attempting to change a city’s image while changing its actual reality ( Beriatos and Gospodini, 2004), and attempting to change the image without changing anything real. In the first scenario, the change must be implemented in stages. The first stage is diagnosis, followed by building a strategic vision, and finally by planning the next action necessary to carry out the determined vision. It should be stressed that prior to a city beginning to market itself, local authorities should make sure that the city does in fact supply basic services and that regular maintenance of the existing infrastructure takes place and fulfills the needs of residents, visitors, business people and local companies. If no improvement in basic services is evident, it can be very difficult to succeed in a marketing campaign, and in fact, in most cases it will be rendered useless. Local authorities understand today that more money should be invested in developing new attractions to improve quality of life and a city’s attractiveness with regard to investments, business and new immigrants. The nature of these attractions is dependent on the type of crowd the city is interested in drawing ( Kotler et al., 1993; Kotler et al., 1999; Short et al., 1993 and Dunn et al., 1995).
One way to run a successful campaign is through Strategic Image Management (SIM), which is an ongoing process of researching a place’s image among target populations, clarifying its advantages, examining the factors influencing its image and leading to changes over the years, dealing with image-related crises, and delivering relevant messages to different audiences (Kotler et al., 1993 and Kotler et al., 1999). The main advantage of this strategy lies in the fact that the involvement of many different bodies in the marketing campaign requires coordination of planning, implementing and following the marketing program. Marketing, promoting and advertising are geared toward several goals. Dealing with possible investors, tourists or entrepreneurs is an ongoing process that does not culminate in securing a one-time investment or establishing a single tourist attraction ( Felsenstein, 1994).
It should be emphasized that the way to successfully change a place’s image commences with examining that image among the target population, since it is this image that provides the base on which the marketing campaign should be built. Cities with a positive image need campaigns that reinforce this image, whereas cities with negative images need campaigns that improve this image. Cities with weak images need campaigns that focus first on raising awareness of the city, and only then on constructing the desired image.
The process of constructing an image is not easy, and several different studies have suggested various strategies: the city’s uniqueness needs to be identified, positioned and marketed in a way that reflects what is unique about it and how it differs from competing cities. Special attention must be given to ensuring that all campaign messages are geared toward underlining the unique image chosen by all the participating bodies. In addition, the campaign should not try to cover too many target populations; it should have a succinct, consistent message. Every step agreed upon should be followed, and the various assorted components such as advertising, public relations, promotion, etc. should be well coordinated (Kotler et al., 1993; Kotler et al., 1999; Short et al., 1993; Dunn et al., 1995; Young and Lever, 1997; Morgan and Pritchard, 2001; Avraham, 2003a and Avraham, 2003b).
5. Techniques for delivering campaign messagesCampaign managers have several options for delivering the campaign’s central messages. Choosing between these options depends on the campaign’s goals and timing, on the economic situation of the city and that of competing cities, on the available budgets and on many other factors. The most common techniques are as follows.
1. Advertising—this is the most popular tool for marketing cities, and is based on purchasing advertisements in the media and delivering messages to target populations. According to a CNN poll, US$ 538 million was spent on marketing locations in the US alone during 1999 (Piggott, 2001, as cited in Morgan and Pritchard, 2002).2. Direct mailing/marketing—this method involves directly addressing target populations through mail, personal meetings, telephone or electronic mail. Target audiences are sent brochures, maps, photographs and information pamphlets in the hope that they will become interested in visiting the city. Through direct mailing, city representatives directly address potential investors, tourists or residents and try to convince them to see what the city has to offer without the use of "middlemen".3. Sales promotions—this refers to short-term offers for various city services. For example, tax benefits for companies and factories that are willing to relocate to the city within a specified time frame, various sales and property tax exemptions, reduced prices in local hotels, free training for workers in relocating companies, inexpensive land for investors, and benefits for relocating residents.4. Public relations—this technique attempts to influence the way the city is represented in the various media. City spokespeople or public relations advisors try to create a favorable image through promoting special events and favorable stories, and at the same time attempt to prevent the publication of any unfavorable stories, especially during local crises. Cities today are investing more and more resources in public relations. In the UK, for example, 93% of local municipalities were involved in some sort of public relations activities in 1995–1996, with an average annual expenditure of BP279,600 (Young and Lever, 1997).It must be noted that the use of all these techniques must be coordinated, and that the messages delivered to the public must be similar. Marketing and public relations campaigns are complementary and must be mutually supportive. For example, while a marketing campaign attempts to attract investors to a city using advertisements and brochures, in the public relations campaign spokespeople and advisors should tell the media of investors rushing to the city, about conferences for new investors and about the various benefits offered to prospective investors.
6. Dealing with negative imagesAlthough attempting to change a city’s negative image can be difficult, several cities around the world have managed to do so successfully. The following are several strategies local authorities can use in order to deal with their city’s negative image.
6.1. Encouraging visits to the city and nullifying stereotypesThis media strategy is geared to convincing decision-makers, public opinion leaders and others to come to the city and "see it with their own eyes". Many cities’ stereotypes stem from their infamous past, so that even if positive changes occur, unfavorable opinion persists (Strauss, 1961). Bringing in visitors can be accomplished through conferences, exhibitions, tours, new attractions, lectures and press conferences. Visiting a city makes its image more complete, and thus it may change from a poor image to a rich image. The main advantage of visiting a city is that the image-holder has a chance to personally experience the objective reality within the city, without being dependent on mediators or secondary agents. When this happens in cities associated with negative stereotypes, it may be easy for visitors to see that these stereotypes are false.
Among the public opinion leaders, there is no doubt that journalists are the most important. Attracting them to a city through the efficient use of public relations can be very beneficial for improving the city’s image. This is especially true during times of crisis, when it is advisable to bring in media people and organize familiarization trips in the hope that they will report that the situation is "business as usual" (Hooper, 2002; Frisby, 2002; Baral et al., 2004 and Beirman, 2002).
In order to deal with negative perceptions held by financial investors and public opinion leaders concerning cities in the north of England, for example, local authorities employed the strategy of organizing local visits for public opinion leaders, in the hope that these visits would help change negative perceptions and promote a favorable image which would be passed on to other people with whom the opinion leaders would associate later (Burgess, 1982). A similar strategy was employed in the attempt to improve the image of the Israeli city of Holon. A poll conducted by local authorities during the early 1990s revealed that although the city in general suffered from a negative image, people who had visited were fond of it. Therefore, as part of the campaign to change the city’s image, it was decided to attract people to it through special cultural events and performances, which would enrich its image. Indeed, this strategy was successful, and the city’s image greatly improved during the late 1990s. Similarly, the cities of Jerusalem and Belfast hold frequent cultural events and festivals in order to attract visitors and thus address the fear of terrorist activity, which might cause many to avoid these cities ( Efrati, 2002).
6.2. Hosting spotlight eventsUsing special events, often referred to as "spotlight events", "hallmark events" or "mega-events", in order to improve place image is an old strategy (Nielsen, 2001). One of the most famous examples was the Nazi’s use of the 1936 Olympic Games to project a positive image for their regime. Since then, many cities have used the summer and winter Olympics, the World Expo, the Cultural Capital of Europe title, the Eurovision song competition, and, in America, the Republican and Democratic national conventions, as major platforms for massive public relations-led image campaigns ( Beriatos and Gospodini, 2004 and Kirby, 1999). These events focus attention on a particular location for a short, concentrated period, allowing the city to promote certain chosen images to the international media, and may be used to improve a negative image. This was the case when Beijing hosted the 1990 Asian Games and used the media attention to improve its image after the Tiananmen Square massacre ( Hall and O’Sullivian, 1996). Cities that host international spotlight events such as the Olympics or the World Expo undergo substantial changes in the urban landscape, the result of large-scale investments in the private and public sectors. The resulting development and renewal of municipal space and upgrading of city infrastructures strengthen the cities’ competitive edge and raise their rating in the global hierarchal system.
6.3. Turning a negative characteristic into a positive oneAnother way of dealing with negative perceptions and stereotypes linked to a city is taking a negative characteristic, admitting its existence and turning it into a positive characteristic. For example, Minnesota winters are known as extremely cold, a fact that damaged the state’s image and drove people away. Today, however, these winters are marketed as unique and have become a tourist attraction, with various winter cultural events and festivals catering to many (Kotler et al., 1993). Similarly, one of the causes of the negative perceptions of the city of Be’er Sheva is its location in the Negev desert in southern Israel, which is associated with extreme heat and the primitive Orient. Several researchers ( Fenster et al., 1994) suggested to local authorities that they should market the city as a modern and unique (in Israel) embodiment of an eastern, exotic, desert city. This suggestion made use of the positive perceptions linked to the desert, and these were associated with the city. The researchers suggested the use of eastern architecture (a unique Oriental shopping center, a Bedouin market, etc.) and other activities that would promote its image as an eastern yet modern desert city. The "eastern" character suggested refers to perceptions of the East as innocent, unspoiled, hospitable, spirited and lively. Another similar case is that of the British city of Bradford, which for many years suffered from a negative image due to the many foreign immigrants who had settled in it and the ethnic and racial clashes that ensued. Over the past few years, the city has been trying to turn this characteristic into an advantage by marketing itself as a multicultural oasis (their slogan is "Flavors of Asia"), where different social groups and coexist in harmony and a spirit of cooperation ( Bramwell and Rawding, 1996).
6.4. Changing the city’s name, logo or sloganIt is well known that perceptions of a city are influenced by its name, logo and the slogan chosen to represent it. Therefore, changing a city’s image may entail changing these symbols. A name is part of the identity of a person, organization or city. Some cities have names that help market them, whereas others have names associated with negative stereotypes and perceptions that harm the city’s attractiveness. Thus, for example, a French Member of Parliament attempted to pass a law that would prohibit the use of the term "Vichy Government", claiming that it was harmful to the development of the city of Vichy. This city, which used to be the world capital of health-related tourism, was also capital to the Nazi-collaborating World War II government that has since been known simply as the "Vichy Government". Although a long time has passed since then, the city’s name is still problematic, and tourists, conference organizers and visitors refrain from coming there.
Indeed, in many cases local authorities believe that their city’s image is so unfavorable, that any attempt to change it would be futile. Some of these places simply change their names in the hope that the negative image associated with the old name will disappear along with it (Avraham, 2003a and Avraham, 2003b). For example, the US state of North Dakota has begun taking measures to rid itself of the prefix "North" and be known simply as "Dakota", since the term "North" leads to perceptions of the state as cold, snowy and unattractive ( Singer, 2002).
City symbols and logos are also important components in marketing campaigns. A city in transition may also need to change its symbols. Industrial cities moving on to the post-industrial era often have symbols that are no longer relevant to the city’s new spirit. The city of Syracuse in New York, for example, strived to move on toward the post-industrial era but had a symbol containing chimneys, industrial plants and smoke that was incongruent with the new image. Indeed, after lengthy debate a new logo was adopted, one displaying skyscrapers, a modern skyline, open skies and a lake (Short et al., 1993). Similarly, a peripheral region in Israel that attempted to attract high-tech employees added the symbol @ to its logo, in order to suggest that it was technologically advanced.
Another way of delivering messages is through slogans. One of the classic slogans used to create fondness for a place is the well-known "I ♥ New York". A good slogan may be used for many years and through several different campaigns. Good slogans lay out a city’s vision, reflect its spirit, and create enthusiasm and momentum. Formulating a slogan depends on the target population and on the goals of the campaign, but the slogan must also be at least somewhat congruent with reality (Kotler et al., 1993). A city undergoing a change should change its slogan, emphasizing the change and its new look, as in the case of the British city of Bradford, whose new slogans include "Bradford’s Bouncing Back" and "A Surprising Place" ( Bramwell and Rawding, 1996).
6.5. Cultivating the local residents’ pride and improving their self-imageResidents of unfavorably perceived cities often suffer from lack of pride in their city and from a low self-image. This situation leads to indifference toward the city and to an unwillingness to take part in various enterprises and to volunteer to make things better. For this reason, dealing with a negative image requires dealing with the local residents and mobilizing their support to the process of change. This is an internally focused media strategy, aimed at residents of the city and the way they perceive it. The underlying assumption is that a favorable self-image will turn the city’s residents into ambassadors who will speak of its wonders while conversing with residents of other cities (Tilson and Stacks, 1997). When the city of Glasgow, for example, wanted to change its image, it built public establishments, museums, and cultural and tourist attractions, and all the while received the backing of the local residents, who became more aware of the city’s cleanliness, aesthetics, etc. ( Paddison, 1993).
Along with the marketing campaign, residents’ local pride and enthusiasm about the process of change should be cultivated. In Syracuse, stickers declaring "I have a part in Syracuse" and "We grow together" were handed out, and local residents participated in campaign decisions, such as choosing the city’s new logo (Short et al., 1993). Letting the residents participate is most important, and their opinions and suggestions should be heard when planning campaign strategies, formulating slogans, etc. Asking about the residents’ needs and requirements, as well as their use of local services, may also be of importance. In many cities, the process of change started with the residents themselves, who felt that the unflattering image associated with their city was untrue.
6.6. Solving the problem that led to the formation of the negative imageIn many cases, a city’s negative image is not fictitious but does in fact reflect some real-life problem. Therefore, cities must often solve the problem that led to the negative image associated with them. If a city is perceived as violent and unsafe, obviously the city must combat crime and violence, as was the case in Miami (Tilson and Stacks, 1997). Solving the problem of crime improves a city’s image and it is then perceived as being safer, as can be seen in the case of New York City, where Mayor Rudolph Giuliani halved the city’s crime rate. Following citywide campaigns against perpetrators of crime and violence, the feeling of safety in the city increased in unprecedented fashion. Similarly, following a terrorist attack against German tourists, the Egyptian government took a hard line against radical Islamic groups and solved the image crisis their ( Efrati, 2002 and Wahab, 1996).
Many examples from around the world illustrate that in order to succeed, campaigns must solve problems and begin marketing and advertising at the same time. In the aforementioned Syracuse campaign, for example, the launching of advertisements and the changing of the city logo were accompanied by refurbishment of the city center through private and public partnerships, in order to create a festive appearance. Around the world, changes in various cities were often made apparent through conference centers, cultural centers, stadiums, shopping centers, theme-oriented areas, museums, agricultural markets, and mass transit systems to facilitate the connections between different regions (Short et al., 1993). Residents and visitors in cities where such programs were implemented could see that the marketing campaign was indeed justified and accompanied by positive landscape transformations, and this in turn increased the authenticity of campaign messages and the chance of success for the entire campaign ( Beriatos and Gospodini, 2004). The importance of solving real-life problems in cities with negative images can be seen in many examples cited by various studies ( Paddison, 1993 and Bradley et al., 2002).
6.7. Delivering counter-stereotypical messagesA city can deliver messages that are contrary to those that led to the crisis and the negative image associated with the city, or launch a "counter-messages offensive" (Kotler et al., 1993). If, for example, several high-profile crimes occurred in a city and received much media attention, the city can publish data concerning its actual crime rate, which may be much lower than that of other cities of similar size. If a city is perceived as unsafe, advertisements can be used in which visitors to the city say how much they enjoyed their visit and how safe they felt.
Negating stereotypes may be accomplished via different styles. The city of Langanside in Northern Ireland, for example, tried to attract investors in a campaign headed by the slogan "And you think we have problems?", in which a comparison was made between the cost of leasing property in the city and in the rest of Great Britain, and also between the percentage of local high school graduates compared to the rest of Great Britain (Gold, 1994). In this way, the city supposedly places its "problems" in the center of the campaign, but goes on to show that reality is better than image, and that in fact its situation is much better than that of other cities. Counter-messages were also used in marketing the Negev desert in southern Israel. The "Negev Action" campaign, for example, challenged the perception of the region as boring, remote, uneventful and monotonous. The campaign offered trips, sporting events and family oriented activities, and the advertisements focused on active recreation photographs and various other activities. Another campaign in the same region used the slogan "green in the Negev", which challenged the perception of the area as desert-like, arid, barren, and distant from the country’s center.
6.8. Ignoring the stereotype or the crisisDuring a crisis, a city can ignore the damage to its image and act as though there never was a crisis, in the hope that new events will cause people to forget what happened. Thus Spain, for example, and Barcelona, in particular, chose to employ a "business as usual" approach following terrorist attacks (Efrati, 2002). Similarly, in normal times a city can also ignore its problems and market itself as an international business center, as in the case of the city of Manchester, thereby ignoring common stereotypes ( Young and Lever, 1997). In this context, some cities’ tendency to mention the bright future in their campaigns—whilst ignoring the more troublesome present—should also be noted. It is in these cases that slogans such as "The future is safe in X", "Think of the future in X" or "X stepping towards tomorrow" can be found. Holcomb (1994) cites the example of the American city of New Milford, CT, which chose the slogan "A great past, and a greater future" but remained surprisingly silent regarding the present.
6.9. Acknowledging the negative imageLocal authorities dealing with image crises must allocate resources and employ experienced professionals. After the crisis is over, an advertisement may be placed stating that "the image of the city as grey and covered with smoke has disappeared, and now the city is attractive" (Burgess, 1982). Such a slogan acknowledges the difficult past and thus creates a feeling of trust between the advertisers and the target audience. A similar tactic can be found in the campaign launched by the city of Rehovoth in Israel, which attempted to promote sale of property using the slogan "Rehovoth is waking up with a bang". Campaign planners here admit that the city has been virtually comatose for many years, but claim that now it is waking up; the future, it is suggested, will be completely different. Other cities advertise themselves using the slogan "The new era", suggesting that the city has now changed from its problematic past. In another example, the American city of Tulsa, OK, used advertisements portraying local sites and residents under the slogan "This should fill in the blank about Tulsa", with the acknowledgement that "When someone says "Tulsa" some people draw a blank". While admitting that the city is not well known and has a weak image, the campaign provides the solution—pictures of the city and information about it, attempting to enrich its image ( Holcomb, 1994). This strategy also includes the initiative employed by some places to acknowledge that a problem exists in a specific regional area, and to frankly advise tourists not to go there. A prime example is the approach taken by the London Tourist Board during England’s much-publicized outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease, which emphasized that the problem was only in rural areas ( Hooper, 2002 and Frisby, 2002). Similar approaches have been used by Israel, Nepal and the Philippines ( Baral et al., 2004 and Beirman, 2002).
6.10. Geographic association or separation in advertising campaignsA final strategy is a city’s attempt to associate itself with a prestigious city or distance itself from a problematic area or region with which it is identified. Association refers to cities’ tendency to have themselves linked with more prestigious locations in the attempt to be presented as belonging to these locations or identified with them. This association also occurs when cities in the periphery associate themselves with the center: small cities portray themselves as urban centers, traditional industrial cities attempt to be associated with high tech industry and so on (Bramwell and Rawding, 1996).
Avraham, 2003a and Avraham, 2003b, for example, found that Israeli cities with negative images try to portray themselves as belonging to or being close the country’s center, as similar to cities with positive images and as belonging to a large metropolitan area. Conversely, other cities try to distance themselves from problematic areas in which they are located by not mentioning their exact location, or by concealing problematic cities in the adjacent area when presenting regional maps. Association and separation are also achieved through the use of distorted maps, presentation of the city as closer to the center than it actually is, use of visual effects and photographs that are reminiscent of prestigious cities, and the use of slogans or new city names that may remind the public of a prestigious city. Examples of separation can be seen in the marketing of the Israeli city of Eilat, which during the late 1990s was presented in Europe as "Eilat on the Red Sea". The campaign did not mention the fact that the city was located in Israel, which was perceived at that time as unsafe for tourists due to security issues. The campaign managers apparently believed that not mentioning the exact location of the city would help in its marketing and prevent European tourists from avoiding it due to perceptions of Israel as unsafe. This strategy, which Pizam and Mansfeld (1996) call a "destination-specific" or an "isolation strategy" ( Beirman, 2002), is recommended to promote cities located in countries suffering from ongoing image crises.
7. Choosing the right strategyLocal authorities’ selection of specific strategies to improve a city’s image is dependent on the relevant circumstances, the chances of making real-life changes, the nature of events that have occurred in the city, the amount of coverage the city received during a given crisis, and on many other factors. If, for example, the actual problems that led to a crisis and the formation of a negative image have not been solved, there is no use in selecting a strategy that involves attracting visitors to the city in order to nullify stereotypical perceptions, or in delivering counter-stereotypical messages.
Another relevant question that must be addressed is how prevalent the negative image is among the target population, and if it is at all possible to change this image. If the image is not extremely unfavorable, is not very prevalent and is relatively easy to change, the best strategy is probably to ignore it. Spanish cities can ignore terrorist attacks because these are perceived as being targeted at specific politicians; cities in Israel, in which terrorists target the civilian population, cannot disregard such attacks, especially since extensive media coverage is given to all of them.
If a crisis is not very serious, and the negative image is prevalent but relatively easy to change, employing a strategy of counter-stereotypical messages is probably the best option. If a problem is very well known and difficult to solve through counter-stereotypical messages, it should probably first be solved in real life, and then the change to the city should be marketed. The strategy of cultivating the residents’ local pride should be chosen if infrastructures and local services have actually improved, and the changes in the city are perceived by locals as indeed promising a brighter future.
8. ConclusionThis article has presented a summary of the relevant media strategies available to local authorities interested in improving their city’s negative image. Favorable images are becoming more and more vital due to the growing competition between cities. In Europe, for example, some 100,000 communities are competing over potential consumers, and similar competition exists in the US and in Australia (Kotler et al., 1999). Due to this competition, cities can no longer remain indifferent to the way they are perceived.
It should be emphasized that improving a city’s image is a complicated task and may take many years (Fenster et al., 1994, suggest a time frame of between 6 and 8 years). It is by no means a one-time act. Additionally, one must remember that although proper handling of the relevant media aspects is important, an advertising campaign alone is not enough to bring about significant change. Real life problems faced by those who need to use city services—including residents, tourists, investors or immigrants—must also be dealt with. Actions must also be pursued in different and complementary channels. Members of the former Yugoslav republics, for example, use media advertisements, but at the same time have also launched an extensive sales campaign in tourist fairs around the world, and regularly meet travel agents and tour operators—all this in order to bring back those tourists who used to flock to the area prior to the Balkan Wars ( Efrati, 2002). Similarly, the governor of Utah travels to Silicon Valley every month in the attempt to attract more companies, and does not rely solely on an advertising campaign ( Lee, 2001). In other words, several techniques should be used in unison in order to achieve the desired end result: advertising, public relations, sales promotions, direct mailing and marketing.
A final note is of the utmost importance. The analysis in this article demonstrates clearly that a given location’s actual real-life situation is more important than any media strategy employed. Ireland did not only redefine and re-position itself, but also employed a general program of tax benefits and incentives for industrial development (Hametz, 2002). The Spanish city of Bilbao—which used to face severe problems stemming from poverty, unemployment and terrorist attacks—would not have become an attractive tourist resort through media campaigning alone, had it not at the same time developed real attractions (establishing the Guggenheim Museum and other tourist attractions and services—see also Prytherch, 2003). Media strategies are helpful in raising awareness among target populations to what a city has to offer, and can thus assist in making the most of these attractions, but they are not enough by themselves to bring about a much longed-for change.
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Cities Volume 21, Issue 6 , December 2004, Pages 471-479